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Early Life and Rise to Power

Kublai Khan was the fourth son of Genghis Khan and Sorghaghtani Beki, a strong and influential Mongol Empire person. Kublai showed a deep interest in learning and administration from a young age. He had a well-rounded education that encompassed knowledge of other cultures, languages, and faiths.

Following the death of his brother, Mongke, in 1260, Kublai Khan emerged triumphant in a power struggle and came to the throne as the Mongol Empire’s fifth Great Khan. He constructed his capital in Shangdu (also known as Xanadu) and then relocated it to Dadu (present-day Beijing).

Kublai Khan had the following marriages:

First, he married Tegulen, who unfortunately died soon after their marriage. Following that, he married Chabi of the Khongirad, whom he regarded as his most treasured empress. Following Chabi’s tragic death in 1281, Kublai followed Chabi’s imagined request by marrying Nambui, her young cousin.

The following is a list of Kublai Khan’s main wives, grouped by ordos:

Warfare and Foreign Relations

While Kublai Khan first restricted the kheshig’s responsibilities, he built a new imperial bodyguard. This unit was originally made up solely of ethnic Han people, but it was eventually supplemented by Kipchak, Alan (Asud), and Russian forces.

After organizing his own kheshig, Kublai put three of the original kheshigs under the supervision of the descendants of Genghis Khan’s advisers, Borokhula, Boorchu, and Muqali, in 1263. Kublai instituted the practice of having four notable nobles in his kheshig ratify decrees, which was thereafter adopted by all subsequent Mongol khanates.

Both Mongol and Han units were organized in the same decimal system that Genghis Khan pioneered. The Mongols embraced new armaments and technology with zeal. Kublai and his generals conducted military battles in southern China in a methodical and deliberate manner. The Yuan army quickly overcame the Song thanks to the efficient assimilation of Han naval technology.

In 1285, the Drikung Kagyu sect revolted, attacking Sakya monasteries. Duwa, the Chagatayid Khan, aided the insurgents by besieging Gaochang and destroying Kublai’s garrisons in the Tarim Basin. Kaidu won the battle of Beshbalik and seized control of the city the next year.

Many Uyghurs fled Kashgar for safer lands in the Yuan dynasty’s eastern provinces. In 1291, Kublai’s grandson Buqa-Temur crushed the Drikung Kagyu rebellion, killing 10,000 Tibetans and bringing Tibet to an end.

Kublai Khan invaded Goryeo on the Korean Peninsula in 1260, eventually establishing it as a tributary vassal state. Goryeo came under the even tighter authority of the Yuan after another Mongol incursion in 1273. It was converted into a Mongol military fortress, with various myriarchy commands established. For the Mongol incursions, the Goryeo court contributed both Korean infantry and a powerful naval force.

Despite objections from some of his Confucian-trained counselors, Kublai opted to launch expeditions to invade Japan, Burma, Vietnam, and Java, defying Mongol authorities. He also attempted to bring outlying territories under Mongol authority, such as Sakhalin, with the local inhabitants finally succumbing to Mongol power by 1308, following Kublai’s death.

However, these significant military efforts, along with the advent of paper money, resulted in inflation. Due to the conflicts between the Southern Song dynasty and Japan, the issuance of paper currency increased from 110,000 ding to 1,420,000 ding between 1273 and 1276.

Kublai Khan, a Mongol monarch famed for his varied court, elected officials from many ethnic origins based on merit. He attempted to attack Japan twice because of Wokou’s support for the Southern Song dynasty. The first effort, in 1274, was hampered by terrible weather and defects in ship design. The second invasion in 1281 was accompanied by a great fleet but encountered problems at sea.

The Mongols conquered various islands but were eventually destroyed by Japanese forces, notably in important engagements. The Mongols battled as a unified army against individual samurai fighters, employing explosive weaponry.

Despite outnumbering the Mongols, the Japanese were able to resist them owing to the coastal fortifications. Kublai’s hasty fleet building, utilizing inadequate ships, may have contributed to the defeat. The Mongols suffered huge losses as a result of the invasions. Kublai’s intentions for a third invasion were prevented by his death and his counselors’ united decision not to go ahead with it.

Between 1257 and 1292, Kublai Khan invaded Đại Việt/Annam (Vietnam) five times. There were important campaigns in 1258, 1285, and 1287. While some believe these operations to be successful because they established tributary connections, Vietnamese history sees them as wins over foreign invaders known as “Mongol yokes.”

The initial expedition in 1258 culminated in the conquest of Thang Long, the Vietnamese capital. This resulted in tributary connections between the Vietnamese and Yuan dynasties. The Yuan tried a second invasion in 1285 to demand more tribute and oversight, but it failed. In 1287, they aimed to replace the ruler of Đại Việt but faced initial successes followed by major defeats. Ultimately, both Đại Việt and Champa acknowledged Yuan supremacy to avoid further conflict.

Due to Mongol dominance over trade routes and effective mail systems, there was increasing engagement between East Asia and Europe under Kublai Khan’s rule. In the early 13th century, merchants, traders, and missionaries from Europe and Central Asia began migrating to China.

Because of the Mongols’ control, Yuan subjects were able to travel beyond the empire, reaching countries like Russia, Persia, and Mesopotamia. The African Sultanate of Mogadishu had a reputation in Asia due to previous economic relations with Chinese governments, which drew Kublai Khan’s attention. He dispatched an emissary to acquire information, but they were apprehended. Khan responded by dispatching another envoy to arrange their release.

Genghis Khan’s younger brothers were handed provinces in Manchuria during the Jin dynasty’s invasion. Later generations wanted more freedom after first supporting Kublai Khan’s authority in 1260. Kublai Khan delegated authority to the Mongol nobility while maintaining control. His son Manggala assumed direct control of Chang’an and Shanxi in 1272.

In 1274, Kublai appointed Lian Xixian to combat power abuses in Manchuria, eventually bringing it under Khagan’s rule in 1284. Nayan, a descendant of Genghis Khan’s brother, revolted in 1287 due to growing bureaucracy. Nayan sought an alliance with Kublai’s opponent, Kaidu. In Manchuria, the revolution was supported by numerous Mongol aristocratic families, Jurchens, and Water Tatars.

Nayan was apprehended and killed, and successive disturbances were put down by 1289. As a result, in 1287, Kublai established the Liaoyang Branch Secretariat and reorganized power allocation among loyal princes.

Administration and Governance

To properly administer his large realm, Kublai Khan realized the need for a more centralized and structured government. He incorporated Chinese government aspects such as the development of a bureaucracy and the use of a census system.

Kublai Khan sponsored enormous infrastructure projects, such as the development of a massive canal network and a highway system, to further solidify his control. These endeavors aided communication, commerce, and economic development across the empire.

Wives from Fourth Ordo

1. Empress Bayaujin-daughter of Boraqchin of Bayauts

3. Qoruqchin Khatun—daughter of Qutuqu (brother of Toqto’a Beki) from Merkits

4. Dorbejin Khatun—from the Dorben tribe.

5. Hushijin Khatun—daughter of Boroqul Noyan.

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Almost one year after its debut, The Sacred Drones of West Kalimantan (an extended study of the traditional musics of the Kayan and Taman tribes living on the banks of river Mendalam, West Borneo), Tresno Records comes back with a detailed two-episodes sound documentary, this time focusing on the island of Java. Sriti: Ldgu's sonic adventures in the island of Jah-va - Volume one: Jawa mistis, is the title of the first instalment of this series. Some of the ceremonial functions of the music of Central Java are portrayed in this first chapter: the opening diptych for example, gives you a precious occasion to listen to the otherwise seldom heard Sekaten, Surakarta's Keraton (the Sultan's palace) holy gamelan orchestra, which leaves its sacred rooms once a year; the processed field recordings of a gamelan piece played during a klenengan, a rare, chilled rehearsal where only the most talented players are allowed to play and which lasts an entire night, reaching its peak around four in the morning, when you are lulled into sleep by wooden hammers hitting bronze gongs that can be up to two/three hundred years old; a group of old women preparing themselves for Idul Fitri, the most important celebration of Islam's calendar. Jawa mistis (mystic Java) thus tries to capture those nocturnal, eerie, transcendent atmospheres that permeate Central Java's musics, where Kejawen is the common root: the true, original belief of the Javanese, a unique amalgam of Sufism, Buddhism, Hinduism and Animism. But there's also room for experimentation. In Sun sing suwe and Genderuwo in fact, Ldgu (Tresno's mastermind) delivers a personal reinterpretation of such sublime frequencies, playing personally recorded gamelan instruments on an old MPC, following that path he started with Dawet, his previous output included in Artetetra's Exotic Ésotérique Vol.2: a groundbreaking compilation of world music that gained the attention of Simon Reynolds, who payed homage to its wondrous sounds on the pages of The Wire #400. Italy's contemporary music scene has some hidden pearls which are worth to be discovered: Tresno Records and its revolutionary sonic narratives are definitely some of these. Mixed and mastered by Ldgu. Cover picture taken at a wayang kulit, Klaten, Central Java, 2015. This album is dedicated to Mbah Prapto Suryodarmo

Brothers’ Dispute (Kublai-Boke), Kublai’s Emergence as Great Khan

Despite a formal claim by his younger brother Ariq Boke, Kublai Khan was elected Great Khan by his followers at the Grand Kurultai in 1260. This sparked a fight between Kublai and Ariq Boke, which resulted in the destruction of Karakorum, the Mongol capital.

Kublai obtained backing in Shaanxi and Sichuan and sought to resolve the conflict diplomatically in Hangzhou but failed. He also selected Abishqa as the next Chagatai Khanate commander, but Ariq Boke kidnapped him. Ariq Boke was defeated in combat, resulting in the fall of Karakorum. Ariq Boke temporarily regained control of the city in 1261.

Kublai faced a mutiny at Yizhou, which he quickly subdued, leading to the leaders’ execution. This incident made Kublai mistrust ethnic Hans. Ariq Boke appointed Chagatayid Khan Alghu, who switched allegiance to Kublai and defeated a punitive expedition. In 1264, Ariq Boke surrendered to Kublai.

Western khanate kings accepted Kublai’s power. Kublai called a fresh kurultai, but Hulagu Khan and Berke refused to come. The opposing claims of the brothers caused a civil war between the two sides, with Kublai finally triumphing in 1264. Ariq Boke surrendered to Kublai in Shangdu, who saved his life. Kublai, on the other hand, had all of his allies killed, solidifying his position as the next Great Khan of the Mongolian Empire.

Military Conquests and Legacy of Kublai Khan

Despite his diplomatic and artistic successes, Kublai Khan was a skilled military leader who maintained the Mongol Empire’s growth. His soldiers fought in Southeast Asia, Japan, and even attempted to capture Vietnam. However, these efforts were greeted with mixed results, as Japan notably resisted Mongol invasions known as the Kamikaze typhoons in 1274 and 1281.

Kublai Khan died in 1294, leaving behind a complicated legacy. His rule was a watershed event in history, as he effectively merged Mongol nomadic customs with conquered lands’ civilizations. His administration, governance, and cultural exchange endeavors provided the groundwork for the wealthy Yuan Dynasty.

Author: 夜枭 (Night Owl)

Zhuo Yifan was the Demon Emperor. He Managed to lay his hands on an ancient Emperor’s book, the Nine Serenities Secret Records. A book coveted by many, he was targeted by experts and was even betrayed by his student.

After his passing, his soul enters another’s body. He had came back to life, in the body of a Family Servant, named Zhuo Fan. Because of the regrets of the boy, which Zhuo Fan inherited, he was forced to serve the boy’s mistress.

Just how can he lead this descending family to the pinnacle of this continent?!

Later Years of Kublai Khan

In 1291, Kublai Khan, the Mongol ruler, dispatched his grandson Gammala to safeguard his grandfather Genghis Khan’s hallowed burial site. Ikh Khorig was a well-guarded place. Bayan recovered influence in neighboring territories under Kublai’s control in 1293, discouraging Kublai’s adversary, Kaidu, from large-scale military action for three years. Beginning in 1293, Kublai’s armies drove Kaidu’s men off the Central Siberian Plateau.

Following the death of his wife, Chabi, in 1281, Kublai isolated himself from his counselors, preferring to converse with one of his other queens, Nambui. He had multiple daughters, but only two of them were named. Kublai’s wife and daughters were less conspicuous than the important ladies of his grandfather’s period.

Initially, he picked his son Zhenjin to be his successor, and he ruled in a Confucian style. Zhenjin, on the other hand, died in 1286, bringing Kublai tremendous grief. He became depressed, particularly after the deaths of his favorite wife and intended successor, as well as military failures in Vietnam and Japan. This resulted in overeating and drinking, which caused health problems such as gout and diabetes. His illness worsened despite pursuing numerous medical therapies, including shamans and physicians.

He even skipped the usual New Year’s Eve ritual in 1293. He appointed Zhenjin’s son, Temur, as the future Khagan of the Mongol Empire and ruler of the Yuan dynasty before his death. During his terminal illness, he sought solace from Bayan, who was much younger. Kublai Khan died on February 18, 1294, at the age of 78, and was buried in Mongolia two days later.

Kublai Khan, best recognized as a Chinese ruler, also played an important role in creating the Mongol political traditions. He and his adviser ‘Phags-pa devised the “dual principle,” which highlighted the equality of religion and state in politics. This philosophy affected Mongolian history and helped establish a theocratic monarchy after Mongolia achieved independence from China in 1911.

Evaluating Kublai’s character is difficult because Marco Polo’s major account of him is more of a compliment than an impartial appraisal. Polo depicts Kublai as an ideal global ruler, but he also admits his human weaknesses, such as excessive dining and hunting, a complicated personal life, and occasional harshness.

The significance of Kublai lies in his attempt to manage his conflicting duties. Despite his energy and political understanding, he was unable to resolve the fundamental inconsistencies. He gradually resembled a typical Chinese emperor, with China consuming the majority of his attention to the detriment of the Mongol homeland. As a result, internal battles between competing Mongol rulers arose.

Kublai Khan’s reign was distinguished by a distinctive combination of military victories, cultural interchange, and administrative improvements. His vision of a united, cosmopolitan empire laid the stage for succeeding Chinese dynasties and affected world history. Kublai Khan’s legacy lives on through the Yuan Dynasty’s cultural and architectural accomplishments, reminding us of the continuing significance of this great Mongol monarch.

While his reign provided riches to China and the privileged Mongols, Kublai Khan’s successors struggled to keep the balance. The Mongols retreated to the steppes after the monarchy collapsed in 1368, and they no longer played a vital role on the international stage.